According to the American Psychiatric Association (2013), PTSD is an umbrella term to define someone who has experienced or witnessed a traumatic event. Relocation Stress Syndrome (RSS) in older adults parallel many of the same symptoms as that of PTSD. RSS is generally found in elders who recently move from their home to a nursing home facility (Friedmann et al., 2015). Animal Assisted Intervention (AAI) encompasses a large amount of HAI endeavors such as animal-assisted therapies and activities (Fine, Tedeschi, & Elvove, 2014). These endeavors are varied and can include a variety of animals, from canines to pinnipeds (Fine, Teseschi, & Elvove, 2014). The three groups that this project addresses will tie AAI therapies for PTSD and how these are related to the theoretical constructs listed above.
Albert Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory is a learning theory that incorporates the constructs of: personal factors, behaviors, and environmental factors in how these intertwine with each other when one makes decisions that affect his/her health (Bandura, 1997). This poster will focus on the personal factor and construct of self-efficacy, that one’s belief in control over their life determines whether they operate in a positive self-behavior or a negative self-behavior (Bandura, 1997). According to Bandura (1997), this behavior will determine the resiliency and coping mechanism of the client.
Calista Roy’s Adaptation Model of nursing practice describes how the client adjusts to challenges in their health (Roy & Andrews, 1999). Roy (1999) describes four adaptations that the client has to encounter: physiological (pertaining to their body); self-concept (how one see’s their body and their values); role-functioning mode (position in society); and interdependence mode (interaction with others and need for love). It is the goal of the nurse to assist the client in manipulating responses to keep these adaptations in balance (Callista Roy, Whetsell, & Frederickson, 2009).
Jean Watson’s Human Caring Theory is the last theoretical framework that will be discussed in this project. Watson’s theory is a holistic approach to nursing that the caregiver and the client have a relationship approach to their care, treating the client as a whole human being, by using love and respect in approaching this care (Watson, 2009).
In exploration of Bandura’s (1997) construct of self-efficacy, the veteran with PTSD can benefit from AAI via a therapy dog. In a study by Bergen-Cico et al.( 2018), they discovered that veterans who had a therapy dog were able to perform tasks that they could previously not do-- such as being in public, or working a job. Through the use of a therapy dog, the veteran creates a positive self-behavior that reinforces self-efficacy to the veteran that he/she can do something that previously was insurmountable (Bandura, 1997). Mueller, M. & McCullough, L. (2017) found that children with PTSD who execute equine-facilitated psychotherapy have increased self-worth and self-esteem, which contributes to Bandura’s (1997) self-efficacy construct. In a study with older adults with RSS, visiting canines who interacted with the seniors created more energy expenditure than those that did not have canines (Friedmann et al., 2015). They found that the older adults with the dog visits brushed, fed, and interacted with the animals, which allowed the elder to feel better about themselves, thereby reinforcing Bandura’s (1997) theory of self-efficacy (Friedmann et al., 2015).
The application of Roy’s Adaptation model and veterans examines the four concepts of the client’s adaptation when the veteran pursues AAI. Physiological improvements were found in a study when the veteran performs equine-therapy (Earles, Vernon, & Yetz, 2015). Positive effects from riding increase the veteran’s self-concept, working with the horse improves role functioning in society, and the bond the veteran forms with the horse creates Roy’s last adaptation of interdependence (Callista Roy et al., 2009). In analysis of children with PTSD, another study with equine-therapy found: improvement in the children’s physiological health from riding; improvement in their self-concept due to their belief in themselves; increased trust with their therapist demonstrating role-functioning; and improvements in interactions with others demonstrating the interdependence mode (Mueller & McCullough, 2017). In a study with elders caring for pets in nursing homes, physiological improvements were made from the act of daily animal care (Yang, Lee, & Tsao, 2017). This care also improves the elder’s self-concept and role-functioning, because the pets rely and need the older adult for care (Yang et al., 2017). Lastly, the older adult demonstrates Roy’s last adaptation of interdependence through the HAI bond and love (Yang et al., 2017).
Watson’s Caring Theory was displayed in an interesting study with veterans and pinnipeds (Watson, 2009). The disease of PTSD causes a lack of trust in others and through the veterans working with the seals, they demonstrate that all creatures are interconnected (Wortman et al., 2018). Utilizing equines to connect with children suffering from PTSD (Signal, Taylor, Botros, Prentice, & Lazarus, 2013) demonstrate Watson’s theory demonstrates how the animal connects with the child to develop their trust, thereby showing a caring relationship (Watson, 2009). In a study by Medeiros & Nobrega, (2016), institutionalized older adults who cared for animals cultivated sensitivity to themselves and other, thus mirroring a key concept of Watson (2009).
The methods of AAI in treatment approaches with clients who have PTSD, are applicable to all three theories mentioned above. It is through the understanding of these theories that the healthcare practitioner can apply the principle constructs to improve client outcomes in veterans, children, and older adults who suffer from the detriments of PTSD.
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