Many youth are participating in problem behaviors that have negative health outcomes. Some of these behaviors include substance use, violence, delinquency and sexual risk taking. The rate of these risk behaviors is further increased in inner-city, impoverished areas. Of the 14.6 million children under 18 living in impoverished families in the United States, 47% were of African American heritage. The toll of living in poverty can be manifested by an increased alienation from the norms, sanctions and rewards of mainstream society. These youngsters may not be convinced that they have a future due to their experiences with marginalization affecting their resilience to avoid risky behaviors. Studies of childhood resilience have examined protective factors that reduce risk and promote development. One key factor promoting resilience is a connected relationship with parents in which the youth feel cared for and respected. What is missing in the studies on resilience is the mechanism by which this connected relationship increases resilience.
Objective: This study examined the role of a future time perspective adding to our understanding of resilience by hypothesizing a mechanism for the development of resilience. We hypothesize that resilient girls are able to visualize a positive future for themselves (future time perspective). Furthermore, the girls develop a future time perspective within the context of a connected relationship with their mothers.
Design: Longitudinal study applying secondary analysis using the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (Add Health) to test the study hypotheses.
Sample: The sample consisted of 443 African American, impoverished, inner-city female adolescents 11-15 years of age. AddHealth, funded by 18 federal agencies, represents a sample of youth between grades 7-12 who participated in a survey in 1994 (Time 1) and 1996 (Time 2). In 1994, the sample for this study was on average 13 years old, in grade 9, had an average of 4.2 household members and a family income (reported by parent) of $15,700. Only 10% had a father figure living in the household.
Variables Studied Together: Model testing was used to assess the relative contribution of connectedness on time perspective and substance use, violence, delinquent behaviors, and sexual behaviors. Decreased rates of these behaviors serve as measures of resilience.
Methods: Latent Variable Structural Equation Modeling was used to explore the association of connectedness, time perspective and resilience in early adolescent females. A cross-validation approach was used. The sample was randomly divided into two groups, a calibration group (measurement model) and a validation group (cross-validation).
Findings: Analyses revealed the data fit the model well (Chi-square 67.5 df 53, p.08, CFI .97) The path coefficient between connectedness and resilience at either time points was not significant; suggesting time perspective plays a key role in mediating the relationship between connectedness and resilience at Time 1. Although the path between time perspective and resilience at Time 1 was significant, there was no significant relationship between time perspective and resilience at Time 2. All findings were supported in the cross-validation model.
Conclusions: The present study showed that youngsters with greater feelings of connectedness were more likely to have an extended time perspective; this led to an increase in resilience. The model supports the need for early intervention to help mothers support the development of a future time perspective in their daughters, for once a pattern of behavior is established this pattern is consistent over time.
Implications: The development of this model of resilience in African American early adolescent girls can lead to prevention and intervention efforts in clinical practice. Findings from this study support the need for future research targeted at the promotion of a future time perspective through a connected relationship with mother.
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